Origins Of Agriculture In African Sahara Essay

Several decades ago, Harlan et al. (1976) suggested that Africa, a focusing of the Nile River Valley, exponent be the most affairful setting for developing a fuller understanding of comprise jejuneness and agricultural origins (Harlan et al. , 5). It seems that in Africa the soonest natural plant domestication occurred relatively late (ca. 2000 BC) compargond to most different expanses of the world (Harlan et al, 7-8).Whether this was due to a method of harvesting that was not by artificial means selective, such as beating versus cutting with stone or bid sickles, a lack of intentional re-sowing of harvested ingrains, or reliance in some(a) cases on non-domesticable plants remains unknow, just now it seems clear that sick grain hookup was part of a variety of adaptive strategies until at least closely 2000 BC. Unlike the respectable East, most of Africas native domestic plants step to the fore to require different temporal and geographic origins.In other words, r oll domestication in Africa did not arise in a integrity region, besides developed from diverse vegetative zones (Harlan et al, 12). From the critical and historical perspectives, it is heavy to understand and analyze the schooling of agricultural patterns in any historio-geographical region, Afri prat Sahara in this particular case, because it is from there that the first evidence emerges of village-based communities, pastoralism and intensive use of wild grains.Over the past 75 years, theories of the origins and afford of agriculture nonplus been numerous and diverse. Explanations have ranged from cultural progress, climate change, diffusion of agriculture from bingle hearths, to population pressure, status enhancement, feasting, and to simply viewing the variety of agricultural approaches virtually the globe as increasingly extractive adaptations of foraging behavior. Increasingly, however, it appears that multiple factors led to the development of agriculture and that th e processes may have been different in each region of the world.Archaeological evidence from centers of independent domestication provides numerous opportunities to explain the process, but from the critical viewpoint, it gives minuscule insight into what might have been the ultimate stimulation for such a broad shift. Today, the Egyptian Hesperian Desert (also known as the Eastern Sahara or the Libyan Desert) is extremely inhospitable with little or no rainfall, high daily temperatures, relentless sandstorms, and life that can be support only near the occasional well or oasis (Wendorf and Schild, 1984, 1-5).Increased rainfall almost 9000 BC led to the arrangement of seasonal ponds around Bir Kiseiba and Nabta Playa (Wendorf and Schild, 1984, 2). Although the Eastern Sahara remained unpredictable, peoples migrating west from the Nile Valley or from the forswear to the south began to temporarily inhabit its better-watered aras (Close and Wendorf, 64).No structures, storage pit s, or rise up were recovered from the earliest sites, and pottery was rare (Wendorf and Schild, 1984, 5). Grinding stones were range in the oldest levels, and the plant remains suggest reliance on wild skunkes (Wendorf and Schild, 1998, 99). paradoxical animals such as hare and gazelle comprised the majority of faunal remains, and domestic kine were maybe included in the subsistence regime (Wendorf and Schild, 1998, 103).By 8000 to 7000 BC, the area around Nabta was disunited with desert lakes and dotted with the trees of Tamarix, Acacia, and probably Ziziphus, swampy plants (sedges), and wild grasses (Close and Wendorf, 68). Occupation of the Western Desert was still probably seasonal, with abandonment during the summer monsoons. The sites were larger than those of the previous(prenominal) period, and the remains of small and large huts, bell-shaped storage pits, and deep swell suggest intensified habitation (Close and Wendorf, 69).Lithics, thrum points, grinding stone s, and pottery were present (though pottery was still somewhat rare), and the fauna continued to consist in general of hare, gazelle, and possibly domesticated kine (Wendorf and Schild 1998, 107). The evidence for domesticated cattle in these earliest levels is debated. Bones, tentatively identified as such, mainly teeth and posterior remains, are morphologically similar to both modern domesticated and wild cattle (Bos primigenius f. taurus and B. rimigenius, respectively), but not to other large bovids in the area. Gautier indicates for the presence of domesticated cattle rather than wild cattle because the last mentioned probably could not survive on their own in an desiccate climate without the aid of humans to guide them to known water sources (qtd in Close and Wendorf 1984, 61-62). Support for domesticated cattle comes also from the lack of mug up from medium-sized bovids that typically roam with wild cattle (Wendorf and Schild 1998, 108).Cattle bones are present but not common in the assemblages, which is used to argue for cattle-keeping (for milk and blood) rather than for cattle-eating (Close and Wendorf, 66). Interestingly, Close and Wendorf suggest that it was this expansion into the Sahara that might have pushed cattle-herders towards cattle-keeping and not slaughter, as during the corresponding time in the Nile Valley, cattle plainly were being killed for consumption and not maintained for their products (Close and Wendorf, 68).In addition to hunting, and cattle milk and blood, the collection of wild plants also provided food. The best studied plant remains come from the site of E-75-6 at Nabta Playa, dating to around 6000 BC (Wasylikowa, 128). Wendorf and Schild interpret the sites of Nabta Playa as representing an important transition in prehistory, that of incipient domestication (Wendorf and Schild, 1998, 105). The intensive use of wild grains by pastoralist-hunters suggests a broad-spectrum approach to subsistence, but one that also i ncorporates semi-sedentism and delayed use of resources.Although the pastoralists at Nabta Playa apparently revisited the same locations on a seasonal basis, they probably were forced to remain fluent due to their reliance on cattle and the need for abundant grass cover. Archeologists and historians suggest that groups migrating from the west introduced domesticated African grains to the upper Middle Niger Delta (MND) is has been supported by material remains through various archeological sites (McIntosh, 56).For instance, ceramics and bone harpoon-type points with affinities to sites in the Mema and Dhar Tichitt suggest that there was some early interaction or demarcation at Dia by fisher-forager and agro-pastoralist groups from these more western areas. Evidence from Dhar Tichitt suggests that domesticated millet was introduced prior to 1900 BC, and that millet farming and herding existed well before 600 BC (McIntosh, 71). Ceramics from Mema sites indicate that indigenous fisher -foragers first inhabited the Mema area, but by 1300-800 BC, pastoralist immigration into the region had begun.It has been proposed by Mcintosh that these groups of herders and fishers might have assimilated to some degree in the Mema, and then by chance fissioned into proto-Bozo and Nono groups upon entering the modern MND sometime in the midst of 800 and 400 BC (McIntosh, 79). action into the deeper channels of the upper MND was likely one response to increasing vapour of the ancient floodplain margins and encroachment of the Sahara during the early first millennium BC. The human-plant kindred at MND appears from the earliest times to be based on sieve farming and collection of wild plant resources.This trend continues throughout the occupation of the sites, even during periods of seasonal habitation or partial abandonment (Horizons II and III of Dia). Early in the second millennium however, several species (pearl millet, scrawl wheat berry, and cotton) occur that suggest the development of new or intensified relationships between Dia and the outside world. The increased presence of pearl millet noted especially on Mara probably augurys enhanced trade or exchange with other communities, or perhaps the movement of new peoples into the area.Mcintosh writes of oscillating drying trends during this time that might have allowed cultivation of pearl millet in areas previously too wet, perhaps at Dia or at outlying hamlets (Mcintosh, 83). This important cereal was likely domesticated somewhere between the Sahara and the Sahel of West Africa. The earliest evidence of domesticated pearl millet comes from Tichitt, dating 1900-1500 BC, and from Birimi in northern Ghana, where two grains were directly date to 1740 BC and 1130-1250 BC (McIntosh, 93).Pearl millet occurs frequently at later sites and is a common and important cereal across much of West Africa. The quatern bread wheat grains found on both Shoma and Mara, one grain directly radiocarbon dated to AD 7 79-1157, may also signal trade, or more likely, visitors from abroad. Native to west Asia and introduced into North Africa by way of Egypt, these wheat grains probably made their way to MND via one of the major Saharan trade towns such as Sijilmasa, where to according to medieval Arabic travelers and traders, wheat was cultivated (McIntosh, 99-100).In sum, it increasingly appears that there was an independent domestication of cattle in the eastern Sahara around 8000 BC, well before the introduction of cattle, goat, and sheep from the Near East around 5000 BC. Practicing a broad-spectrum approach to food getting, these early herders spread west and south across the Sahara, eventually entering West Africa around 2000 BC.The earliest domesticated grass (pearl millet) occurs around this time in a broad band across the southern Sahara and Sahel beginning earliest at Dhar Tichitt (Mauritania) and moving rapidly eastward to Lake Chad (northeastern Nigeria) by about 1200 BC (Wendorf and Sch ild, 1998, 122). These sites are invariably associated with the remains of domesticated cattle, suggesting that Saharan pastoralists introduced domesticated grasses into sub-Saharan Africa and play a pivotal role in the development of other African regions.