Bureaucratic vs Democratic

bureaucratic VS The structure of the organization alone is not sufficient for the efficiency of the organization, the manpower of the organization employed in that structure also have an equally important part to play. In the absence of efficient and specialized personnel, even the effective structure power is a failure. Therefore public administration places a great deal of importance to the study of personnel management. There are different types of personnel systems being practiced by different countries around the world. Two of which are: * Bureaucratic system of personnel Democratic system of personnel BUREAUCRATIC SYSTEM OF PERSONNEL â€Å"A personnel system where a body of public servants are organized in a hierarchical system which stands outside the sphere of public control. † DEMOCRATIC SYSTEM OF PERSONNEL â€Å"A personnel system where no one man has any more intrinsic right to official station than other. † COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS BETWEEN BUREAUCRATIC AND DEMOC RATIC Feature 1 Bureaucratic System: The main feature of this system is that the officials are servants of the ruler in the fullest sense of the term. They are responsible to him and him alone.It is through them that the ruler exercises his autocratic powers and they, being the agents of the ruler, in their turn, wield high authority over the people and are, as a rule deaf to public opinion. Democratic System: There is no class division in the services. An employee may begin in the lowest grade of the public service and may progress to the top of the service. In every service methods of objective tests, like efficiency ratings and rating scales, have been established and promotions are based upon these records there being absolutely no restriction on promotions from one class to another.Comparison: While comparing the above contrasting feature of both the systems it became quite evident that in Bureaucratic system the officials major concern is to be in accordance with the expectati ons of the ruler or government. They don’t care about the general public because there public credibility or the decisions taken solely for the welfare of the public is not going to provide them benefit but on the other hand if they take any decision which is not very likeable or favorable for the government then the officials might face some frictions.Whereas in democratic system, different forms of evaluation methods are in practices and based on these standard methods the officials are promoted. That’s why the officials perform their duties efficiently to increase their ratings on these evaluations. So to sum it up, the major concern of attention of officials in bureaucratic system is the government or the rulers whereas the in democratic system, officials are not under authority of the government to the extent as the bureaucratic ones are. Therefore their major concern is their own better performance. Feature 2Bureaucratic System: The officials are organized as a d istrict branch of the government like those of the military branch. They are recruited and trained on strict technical lines so as to make them expert administrators in their respective branches of administration. Thus, they have to apply their skill and experience to the solution of the problems of the civil government of the country just as the military officials have to apply their military skill to the defence of the country. Democratic System: Educational requirements at the time of entrance are of a highly specialized ature rather than of a general character. â€Å"The effort is made to secure persons already possessing the particular technical training fitting them to perform the work called for by the particular to be filled† Comparison: The bureaucratic system relies on the training and supervision of the officials. They don’t go for the already specialized administrations rather they believe in hiring may be an amateur person and then developing and building him into a specialized professional after keeping him under a regress.The officials are given specific training according to the requirements of the department or branch of administration where they should be serving. The democratic system does not favor training inspite it relies on hiring already specialized officials to be appointed on the positions compatible with their qualifications and specialized skills. Bureaucratic system believes that every task is specific so to deal with it specific things should be provided whereas the democratic system believes that the specialized individuals should be hired, their specialization would be enough to manage almost anything.Feature 3 Bureaucratic System: Civil service becomes a district and permanent career, with a regular gradation of positions with fixed grades, salaries and other privileges and a set system of promotions. And with these grades, certain titles and honors also are attached which continue even after the retirement of th e person. Thus, a district official class is created in the society with its own etiquette, powers and prerogatives. Democratic System: No effort is made to make public service a life career.All the above mentioned requirements point to the fact that every individual has full freedom to enter government service at any stage and similarly leave it whenever he pleases. Comparison: It can be said that the bureaucratic system bonds an individual with it. Once the individual becomes the administrative official, the title and honors remain with him forever. It is due to the fact that the system works on their official a lot by providing them training and education.Whereas in democratic system, as the individual are hired with their own skills and specialization, the system does not bond the individual with them rather the official can leave wherever he wants or gets a more appealing opportunity. This shows that the bureaucratic system is appropriate and suitable for the country where the public sector has the major share in the economic says of the country, it wants to keep the skilled and educated manpower with the state whereas the democratic system backs the private sector, the specialized individuals are given charming offers by private enterprises due to which they opt out of the public sector.CONCLUSION Both the systems are efficient in their own respective domains, both need to adopt some improvements in their structure. The bureaucratic system should take care of the hazards of red tapism, corruption etc. which are common in this system. The democratic system also needs to amend itself. It should add some time to time training to their officials according to the changing trends of the society. Also in the countries where democratic system is practiced, the public sector should introduce some incentives so that the officials stay along with the public sector.

Cert Introduction Essay

205 cert introduction to duty of care in health, social care or children and young people’s settings. 205 cert. 1 understanding the implications of duty of care. Q 1.1 Define the term duty of care. A 1.1 Health and social care organisations have what is called a duty of care towards the people look after, that means that they must do everything they can to keep the person in their care safe from harm, it is not only the care establishment that needs to prioritise the safety, welfare and interests of the people using its services, but also the care workers of the establishment. My employer also has a duty of care for staff members, to ensure that workers conditions are safe, suitable to deliver the service. Q 1.2 Describe how the duty of care affects own work role. See more: how to start a paragraph A 1.2 Duty of care is a legal obligation imposed on an individual requiring that they adhere to a standard of reasonable care while performing any acts that could foreseeable harm others. 205 cert. 2 understanding support available for addressing a dilemmas that may arise about duty of care. Q 2.1 Describe dilemmas that may have arisen between the duty of care and an individual’s rights. A 2, 1 as a care worker my aim is to help people live independently. That means encouraging them to make decisions for themselves. When someone in our care decides to do something that we think is unsafe, we face a dilemma (a difficult choice between two decisions). If we stop them doing it, are we denying them the right to take risks? If we let them do something dangerous, are we failing in our duty of care? Q 2.2 explain where to get additional support and advice about resolve such dilemmas. A 2.2 Additional support may come from: Families and friends of the individual. Colleagues. Peers. Senior carers. Managers. Registered managers. Advocates. Care standards. Community psychiatric nurses. Health visitors. Doctors. Police. Local counsellors. Members of parliament. 205 cert. 3 Know how to respond to complaints. Q 3.1 describe how to respond to complaints. A 3.1 Individuals and their relatives and friends are confident that their complaints will be listened to, taken seriously and acted apon. The registered person ensures that there is a simple, clear and accessible complaint procedure which includes the stages and timescales for the proses, and that complaints are dealt with promptly and effectively. The registered person ensures that the person home has a complaint procedure which specifies how complaints may be made and who will deal with then, with an assurance that they will be responded to within a maximum of 28 days. A record is kept of all complaints made and includes details of investigations and any action taken. The register person ensures that written information is provided to all individuals for referring a complaint to the QCA at any stage, should the complainant wish to. Q 3.3 Identify the main points of agreed procedures for handling complaints. A 3.3 There are principles of good complaints procedures by the local government ombudsman and heath service ombudsman .they are the following. 1 Getting it right.

Self-recommendation Essay

I am convinced to say that my secondary school life is not in vain because I have acquired both academic knowledge from lessons and practical experience from various extracurricular activities. Being a leader in the Scout, I realized that organization, time management and communication are of paramount importance in leadership. Being a senior patrol leader, I engaged in planning meetings for the scout members. In addition to briefing and communicating with the whole troop of scouts, I had to cooperate well with teachers in order to convey the messages clearly from teachers to all the scout members as well as consolidating the spirit of scouts. To become a more capable leader in a team, I would like to make progress in my leadership skill, especially the organization and management skills, and to capitalize on different aspects. Therefore, I determine to have further study on management, contributing myself to help people to organize and manage their business. Apart from leadership, I feel satisfied as long as helping someone who is in need. Through studying in science subjects, I found that nowadays advanced technology is established by the forerunners who devoted themselves to this industry, such as Steve Jobs. Definitely, the development in science and technology has brought convenience to our life. Although I am not going to become an inventor, I am willing to have further study on science technology in order to light up people’s life. Thus, I am enthusiastic in studying subject related to science and technology to equip myself to help people. All in all, I have recognized myself in the past few years. To show the gratitude to my teachers and friends, I would endeavor to show my best positive light on different fields. I look forward to my new journey in the future.

The importance of event evaluation for event managers and the process Essay

The importance of event evaluation for event managers and the process of event evaluation - Essay Example It is like a way of assessing the goals and objectives that we had set before. We undertake event evaluation at the end of an event in order to understand if we have achieved what we wanted. Evaluation of an even can also be used as a strategic planning tool that can help us to understanding the correct method or the correct procedure that we should use in order to achieve the desired goals and objectives. It is a fundamental process that helps us to discern the viability and sustainable of an event by assessing the best process that can be used to take us where we want to be. The evaluation of an event should take a holistic approach. In this regard, it should not be leaned on one side alone but it should be aimed at looking at all corners of the event. Evaluating an event as a whole is important as it helps us to understand it in all its dimensions. If an evaluation is carried on one side alone, there may be a probability of constrain from other areas that were not evaluated before which may be a possible failure of the event. By taking a holistic approach we mean that we have to focus on all areas. Most evaluation of an event tends to lean on the economic viability of an event and gives little attention to the areas of the event. Therefore we have to consider dimensions like the social aspect of he event, the environment aspect of the event, if it is a business event we have to asses the business leveraging, and also we have to evaluate the branding of the event and the impact that it has created. It is also very important to evaluate an event regularly in the sense that it has to be consistent throughout the whole process of its implementation. This means that we have to evaluate an event right from the start of the event, when it is being implemented and after it is implemented. There must also be a common base under which an event will be evaluation on. In

Evaluation of Corporate Social Responsibility and the Risks of being Dissertation

Evaluation of Corporate Social Responsibility and the Risks of being non-CSR Entity - Dissertation Example This research will begin with the statement that the expansive literature on the topic of CSR comprises various definitions and explanations of the construct. For instance, the European Commission defines the concept of corporate governance as â€Å"A concept whereby companies integrate social and environmental concerns in their business operations and in their interaction with stakeholders on a voluntary basis.† In addition to that, a generally understood and applied definition in the management literature is expounded by Davis by defining CSR as â€Å" the firm’s considerations of, and response to, issues beyond the narrow economic, technical, and legal requirements of the firm to accomplish social and environmental benefits along with the traditional economic gains which the firm seeks.† Moreover, there are other terms similar to the construct of the CSR including â€Å"corporate sustainability†, which focuses on long-run shareholder value by including principles particularly in nine other areas: governance, ethics, transparency, financial return, business relationships, community involvement, employment practices, environmental protection and product value. As a result, the activities attached with the concept of corporate sustainability remain largely analogous to the basic contents of the CSR. The CSR is an amalgamation of a number of corporate activities focusing on the welfare of stakeholder groups other than investors, such as suppliers, employees, charitable and community organizations and customers. One significant segment of CSR activities consists of corporate donations or contributions of products or cash to community and charitable organizations. For instance, Whirlpool Corporation (2010) arranged and donated a refrigerator to every home built by the Habitat for Humanity particularly in the affected areas of North America. Moreover, employees are also significant stakeholders for the companies. Companies carry out cert ain employee welfare related initiatives on a voluntary basis. Employee welfare includes initiatives from the facility of educational advantages to health care issues including providing them on site health clinics, wellness classes, fitness centres focusing on the issues such as work related stress management. Workplace safety has also become a critically significant factor of employee welfare; many companies have developed and established codes of conduct for employee safety and welfare and to their suppliers as well. Companies’ CSR activities also emphasis on meeting and fulfilling customer desires including protecting future generations. They intend to develop and sell such innovative products and services that appeal to customers’ environmental concerns via diminishing harmful product packaging and making it more durable and sustainable as well. Other CSR activities encompass â€Å"green† development and production practices and services, such as reducing e missions, conserving energy, reducing packaging materials, employing recycled materials, and sourcing materials from the suppliers located close to manufacturing installations. In this regard, Sony (2010) manages the harmful impacts of its greenhouse gas emissions by installing for carbon dioxide emissions from shipping, production, storage and other product use activities. Furthermore, companies often get involved with customers and vendors in their efforts to reduce their footprint and increase their environmental efforts. In this regard, Wal-Mart (2006) developed and announced a program measuring suppliers on their ability to diminish packing; and along with a goal of reducing up to 5 percent of total packing during the period 2008 to 2013. Why do firms involve in CSR activities? There remain various reasons underlying organization’s inclinations to get involved in socially responsible endeavours. First, organizations may prefer to remain

Political Continuities and Discontinuities in the World between the Term Paper

Political Continuities and Discontinuities in the World between the Colonial Period and the Present - Term Paper Example In a simplistic perspective, colonialism pertained to the acquisition, perpetuation, and management of the overseas territories referred to as colonies by the people from other countries, most commonly happening to be denizens of the Western world. Colonialism was a process by which the people of a Western country established sovereignty over a foreign land and the colonizers went to a great length to alter the politics, social norms, culture and economic dynamics of that colony to strictly suit their vested interests and designs (Wesseling 1997, p. 29). Inequality was indeed the basis of colonialism and the inequality between the colonizing nation and the colony and between the colonizers and the natives was the crux of all the colonial logic. Colonialism did have a multidimensional impact on the individual rights, politics, cultural norms, economics and religion of the colonized nations and gave way to institutions and concepts like slavery, economic exploitation, religious enforce ment and ethnic alienation. Though these norms and concepts have greatly ceased to exist in a strictly colonial form, they indeed tend to continue in altered forms and designs in the contemporary times. This paper intends to trace the continuities and discontinuities associated with these institutions and concepts in a current perspective. Slavery Colonialism relied for its political and economic sustenance on the subjugation and exploitation of the colonized. Slavery was an immensely unfortunate and inhuman aspect of colonialism that tended to dehumanize the people from colonized lands to run the economic machinery of the colonial nations (Walvin 1994, p. 7). The essential essence of slavery in the colonial times was that it methodically degraded the culture, traditions, social institutions and religions of the colonized races to consider them equal to being animals. The colonial forces had to somehow justify the exploitation of subjugated races as slaves, and the one plausible way of doing so was to prove and establish that the people from colonized races were inferior to the Europeans. The foundations of slavery and the slave trade were laid in the beginning of colonialism and the commensurate rise of mercantile powers (Walvin 1994, p. 56). Slavery was utterly devastating for the colonized races in a long term context as it significantly shrunk their populations, made the colonized lands and races more vulnerable to and dependant on colonial powers, decimated any chances of modernization of the enslaved races and brought far reaching political consequences, whose reverberations could even be heard in the present times. The institution of slavery devastated farming and industry in the colonized nations. There is no denying the fact that the institution of slavery in its colonial context, where the individuals from the enslaved races were owned and managed by the Western vested interests has seized to exist in the present times. However, it goes without sayin g that the historical momentum that accompanied colonialism and imperialism and the accompanying institutions and practices like slavery still continue to shape the present world in ways and forms that is utterly disturbing and annoying. It would not be wrong to say that there are far greater numbers of slaves serving the cause of the Western economies today than that existed during the zenith of slavery. Today the

War on Terrorism and Popular Culture on Media Essay

War on Terrorism and Popular Culture on Media - Essay Example Various media platforms have been exploded with context more or less associated with the war on terrorism, 9/11 incident giving an added hype to the issue. Also, owing much to the hype about war on terrorism, Middle East has become the interest of many authors and producers alike to engage the audience into unveiling perspectives of terrorism, generating interest of the people into the media products. The paper aims at discussing various media forums, i.e. books, TV (Prime time) and even Hollywood to analyze the popular culture on media in the aftermath of 9/11 attacks and in the wake on the war on terrorism. Prior to the extensive engagements of the great powers of the world into war against terrorism, the media platforms depicted a completely distinct picture of the world around us. The cold war period for instance contributed towards the popularity of media products revolving around this subject, also pop culture hit the media platforms back in 1960`s. However, once terrorism beca me the most pressing issue of the time, media products started focusing on these aspects as the audience was looking for answers to their queries regarding the subjects. A lot of contradictions and conspiracy theories surrounded mass audience due to which the media products focusing on the war on terrorism gained immense popularity, and the companies conceiving such products generated high amounts of revenues (Birkenstein, Anna & Karen 2010). Thus, to come up with valid conclusions it is crucial to analyze all mediums one-by-one and comment on them separately to draw pattern regarding media popular culture in reference to the war on terrorism. Starting off with the discussion over the influence of the war on terrorism over literature, the books are filled with various perspectives over the war on terrorism. In addition to the various textbooks, other social sciences literature was also focused immensely on this topic, relating terrorism to social aspects of life, journalism, anthrop ological accounts etc. The research over politics was also merely driven by the war on terrorism, as every student of politics was interested in studying about the impact of the war over politics. Since religion was associated with terrorism, books after books started being published on Islam, for instance â€Å"Suicide Bombers: Allah`s new Martyrs† by Farhad was one of the bestsellers of that time (Birkenstein, Anna & Karen 2010).. Similarly, other similar texts include Fundamentalism: the search of its meanings, Bad Faith: The Danger of Religious Extremism etc. Samuel P. Huntington`s clash of civilizations was however the most impactful publication which went viral throughout the world. The war on terrorism which led towards further segregation of the civilization owing to the cultures and religions was reflected in this publication circulated worldwide. Also, since Middle East became the subject of sole significance especially after the Iraq war, most of the literature was now focusing on this region. Since the impact of publications is restricted and the influence is not as widespread as that of broadcast media, the focus should now be shifted towards television. The prime time television also saw a shift towards content regarding the war on terrorism (Birkenstein, Anna & Karen 2010).. For instance, the first impact of the declaration of war on terrorism required loyalty and high regard for

Addressing a Wide Range of Skills and Abilities in Classroom Personal Statement

Addressing a Wide Range of Skills and Abilities in Classroom - Personal Statement Example They like to discuss things with peers, record lessons and listen to them, and engage in debates. Kinesthetic learners learn by doing things with hands for example, they highlight their notes and repeat lessons while jogging in the park. If I teach a visual learner through audio, I might not get good results which I might get if I teach him through visual aids. Moreover, I would like to experiment with different teaching methods, like making groups of students and encouraging them to discuss the subject matter; giving individual attention to each student to know his characteristic capabilities; and, making pairs of them and assigning them different tasks according to their skills. I would create a holistic environment that persuades students to work in groups and engage in vigorous group activities to discuss and experiment with their topic while focusing on the practical illustrations. This will help me address their myriad skills.

Social Media in Communication Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Social Media in Communication - Essay Example The process of literature review can be said to be an amalgamation of the summaries of the papers or an annotated bibliography of multiple research or the manuscripts of the different eminent scholars and authors. But a meaningful literature review can be defined as the use of ideas in the literature for justifying a particular approach related to the topic. 1.1 Focus on the three audience model The following section presents a literature review on significance of social media with respect to the three audience research technique. The study will be covering the structural, behavioral as well as the cultural aspects of the literature review of the topic in question. The structural dimension will be dealing with the description of composition which is related to the society, its time use as well as the survey and analysis method incorporated within it. The behavioral dimension will direct towards explaining and predicting the choices, reactions as well as effects and the process of sur vey, experiment as well as mental measurement. The cultural dimension will associate the understanding of the meaning of the content received as its use in context, its perception of meaning as well as ethnographic and qualitative analysis. The literature review in this paper centers on the discussion of the significance of social media in the area of communication in the topical times. 1.2 Social media in communication The technological advances of the modern world are standing in the way of transforming as well as disseminating the information to the affected communities in time of a crisis situation. The network communication of the modern world like that of mobile technologies, computers as well as Internet access and digital video equipment are transforming the framework of network communication so that we can connect with each other. Veil et al. (2011) refer that in 2010, Smith in a Pew Internet Study encountered that around one third of the online adults are in the spree of u tilizing social network platforms like that of blogs, social networking sites, online video , text messaging as well as portable digital devices (Veil et al., 2011, p. 110).These media provide a cost effective forum for expressing the formation of ideas as well as stand in the way of offering more opportunities as well as new channels for global outreach in the crisis communication (Veil et al., 2011, p. 110). Veil et al. (2011) also highlight the fact that from the studies of Palen, Vieweg, Sutton, Liu, & Hughes, it is revealed that the onsite as well as online crisis response in the present world are a system of simultaneous inter-linkage and intersection with each other (Veil et al., 2011, p. 110). Social media is at the core of human communication Veil et al. cite Mayfield to portray the fact that the crux of social media is generated from the human communication at its core with the attributes of participation, openness, conversation as well as that community and connectedness. The enhanced technology induces private individuals for becoming source of online information with the sharing opinions, insights, perspectives and experiences with the others (Veil et al., 2011, p. 110). Social networking and organizations Ferreira and du Plessis (2009) referred the studies of Arvanitis and Loukis who have studied the impact of social networking within the productivity of the workers. They executed a comparative study which was based on firm level data for Greece as well as Switzerland (Ferreira & du Plessis, 2009, p. 4). The study revealed that the utilization of ICT in the Greek firms has implemented positive productivity effects and the studies also proved that full productivity was not attained as the capital was not efficiently combined with that of technology (Ferreira & du Plessis, 2009, p. 4). Lin et al. (2012) have observed that the work values are generally stable, intrinsic as well as psychological in nature. The work values

Morality Play Essay Example for Free

Morality Play Essay * Popular from the early 1400s to the 1580s. * Morality plays were about the fate of a single individual’s soul. * The main character represented all men and often had a name such as Mankind or Everyman to demonstrate their allegorical function. * They include vice and temptation characters attempt to corrupt the Everyman figure. * Allegorical characters also represent virtues. The ‘Everyman’ character listens to them and takes note of warnings, often returning briefly to his ‘good’ lifestyle. * A reform/relapse pattern is repeated several times. * Through a series of blunders and moral lessons the hero is gradually educated into an understanding of the difference between right and wrong and the nature of god. * At the end, the main character settles his accounts with God and either lives or dies forgiven and Christian. He is wiser and better at the end of the play. * A chorus, such as the Messenger and Doctor characters in Everyman, is used to comment on and explain the action for the audience. Elements of Renaissance plays. * Contain soliloquies in which a highly distinct self reflects upon his own desires and actions. * Celebrate the scope of human powers while acknowledging their boundaries; there is a duality at work which praises man’s creative powers (by implication also those of the poet, or author) but concedes that man is not God and that ultimately all his powers derive from God. * They begin to refer to the new countries and things being discovered by explorers, mentioning exotic settings and transporting their audiences around the world. Renaissance ideas * The body and soul are separate and linked with different elements and humours. * Catholicism was banned in England and the Pope was considered the antichrist by some. * Renaissance scholars studied classical literature, including Roman and Greek philosophy. Discussion of what it meant to be human centred on reason, balance and dignity much more individualistic than medieval scholastic thinking. * The humanist attitude to the world was anthropocentric: instead of regarding humanity as fallen and corrupt, their idea of truth and excellence was based on human values and experience; people openly questioned religious theology and teaching. * The world was dynamic, changing and exciting. Plays explored the many contrasts between how people should behave and how they actually do, and the questions and contradictions thrown up by a changing world.

Presidency of James Madison

Presidency of James Madison Liliana Martinez The presidency of James Madison was one which many people have disagreeing points of view on. Some think he was not one of our greater presidents because he let the United States fall into the conflict known as the war of 1812. Others think that Madisons presidency was a good one because he led America out of the war of 1812 and united the country. The presidency of James Madison while not being one of the greatest of all the presidents was still above average as a president because of Madisons involvement as the Father of the Constitution, Federalist Papers and presidency overall. Born in 1751, Madison grew up in Orange County, Virginia. He was the oldest of 12 children, seven of whom lived to adulthood. In 1769, he attended the College of New Jersey. In 1776, he is a member and attend the Virginia Convention. From 1780-1783 he is a member of Continental Congress. Then from 1884-1886, he becomes a member of the Virginia Legislature. In 1787, he is a member of the Constitutional Convention. Then from 1789-1797 he is a member of the House of Representatives. Later in1801-1809, he is Secretary of State under Jefferson. His first term of office was in 1809. The War of 1812 was the second war for independence, the U.S vs. o Great Britain. There was later the Embargo Act of 1807, and the Bank of the United States in 1816. He became known as the Father of the Bill of Rights and he also published the Federalist Papers. He was a big help in writing the constitution, he made big contributions to help create and shape America. When the U.s faced the war of 18182, he secured U.S sovereignty for generations to come. He also became. co-Founder of the Democratic-Republican party. And in spite of obstacles, however, America had an impressive strength, particularly in its naval fleets. Little by little, they claimed victories over their opponents. Finally, in 1815, the war ended with the Treaty of Ghent. Neither parties of the war gained new territories, but many historians agree that Americans view the War of 1812 to be the second greatest war that ensured their independence. Madisons presidency ended with his retirement in 1817, when he was 65 years old. Having been such a significant persona in America, James Madison left a legacy that the country will not forget. Dozens of landmarks, towns, cities, institutions, and natural resources have been named after him. His portrait was also featured in the US $5,000 bill. But the true legacy of James Madison was the change of the course of history that millions are now benefiting from. As one of the Founding Fathers, he was part of the birth of America as a nation. As the Father of Constitution, he ensured that this nation would become whole, united, and most of all, in the hands of the people. And as a huge force behind the Bill of Rights, he empowered and inspired the people. James Madisons legacy isnt contained in the United States , they rippled throughout the world. With that, he was indeed a great President. Yes, he had both domestic and foreign policy accomplishments. His domestic accomplishments were he Co-authored the Federalist Papers and was instrumental in the drafting of the Constitution and Bill of Rights, he helped establish the Democratic-Republican Party with Jefferson, and renewed the charter for the Bank of the United States to raise funds for the War of 1812. He then had his foreign policy which was signed Macons Bill No.2, which repealed the Non-Intercourse Act and allowed French and English goods on American ships as long as trade rights were respected, led the nation into the War of 1812 after the failure of diplomatic protests and a trade embargo against Britain. Overall, the policies helped America succeed sand improve its conditions for a stronger and more reliable nation. Sources http://www.history.com/topics/us-presidents/james-madison https://millercenter.org/president/madison/life-before-the-presidency http://www.american-presidents-history.com/james-madison-timeline.html http://www.presidential-power.org/presidencies-timelines/james-madison-presidency-timeline.htm https://millercenter.org/president/madison/impact-and-legacy http://totallyhistory.com/james-madison/

Ethical Theory of Hedonism

Ethical Theory of Hedonism According to many scholars, to live ethically means to thinks about things that are beyond ones personal interests. When one thinks and lives ethically he or she becomes a just human being with needs and desires of his own but still living among people who also have their needs and desires. Ethics is branch of philosophy that deals with the study of right and wrong questions and therefore helps us to make the right moral judgments in the events of our daily life. This excerpt aims at discussing normative and applied ethics and in particular hedonism and its application in the criminal justice system. The modification of hedonism as a theory in ethics engrosses a number of amazing and important decisions. In this excerpt therefore two types of hedonism are also discussed. Introduction Both the criminal justice system professionals and the general public are concerned with the application of ethics in our daily lives. Everybody would like to see all the public servants and all people in the world perform their duties in the best way possible. In understanding the peoples behavior the criminal justice system uses number of ethical theories where hedonism is one of them. According to Banks (2009), hedonism has been traditionally expressed as the notion that pleasure alone is intrinsically good (p.333). In his explanations banks says that the only thing that is worth seeking just for its own sake is pleasure and that pleasure is the good. Hedonism is therefore the doctrine that pleasure is the sole good. Hedonism was first explained by Epicurus who was a great philosopher from Greek. In the English form Epicurus name appears as epicure, which means a person whose main enjoyment and satisfaction is gotten from exotic and carefully made food and wine. Epicurus advocated for the moderate and yet pleasurable living where he stated that pleasure is the good for which all human beings aim. On the other hand the pursuit of pleasure can also result to pain for instance when a person drinks to excess in his or her pursuit for pleasure and suffers stomachaches and headaches. Pain is mostly good as a means since its usually a signal that something is not right and that a change is necessary. Therefore according to the views of Epicurus the best way for one to live is to live in a pleasant manner and at the same time suffer not any of the unwanted effects of pleasant living. According to Banks (2009), the main aim of human living is tranquility of the mind and the health of the body. He did not recommend a life of endless pleasure or sensuality since by pleasure it means the absence of pain on the body as well as the absence of problem in the soul. However certain pleasures like making fun of others or taking drugs are a means of something painful and therefore would not be good. Tranquility of the mind is attained through practical wisdom and philosophical understanding. Hedonism appears in two forms which are ethical hedonism and psychological hedonism. Psychological hedonism states that human beings pursue pleasure and only pleasure in their lives and that all their activities are aimed towards attaining pleasure as well as avoiding pain (Banks 2009 p.334). Ethical hedonism on the other hand states that not only do human beings seek pleasure but they are actually supposed to seek pleasure because pleasure alone is good. In psychological hedonism all actions are motivated or driven by the search for pleasure while the ethical hedonism goes a step further and views the pursuit for pleasure as being normative. However, in its both forms hedonism is criticized by many scholars for trying to give only a single explanation for all human acts. According to Tuner (2000), pleasure is not the only thing that is desirable. Many other things like peace, money, education and liberty are desirable as means and ends but in hedonism pleasure is desirable as the eventual end. In this study we also find that human beings get pleasure in different ways. Pleasure can also be the same even when the sources of pleasure are the same. The hedonists believe that moral goodness is actually an instrumental good and not necessarily an intrinsic good. Moral goodness means doing the right thing even when it does not lead to happiness. According to hedonism, moral goodness can be an instrumental good though it does not always mean that it will result to pleasure (Larry, 2009) The idea of pleasure and happiness being a measure of ethical morality is basically limited to the western philosophy. Many people have promoted the hedonistic belief in pleasure from Aristotle and Socrates to John Mill and Jeremy Bentham as well as to others in the contemporary times. According to the proponents of hedonism all human beings are selfish by nature. These supporters argue people do good or bad to others so as to acquire a certain intrinsic pleasure (Everett 2006 p. 36). This pleasure may be overtime, in the immediate future or may even cause them pain in the immediate sense and eventually cause them pleasure. In this sense its believed that people help others because helping others gives them pleasure. Similarly people do evil because doing evil gives them pleasure. The criminal justice system therefore uses the theory of hedonism to understand the behavior of criminals and what drives them into committing crimes (Turner). This way the criminal justice system is able to give the right punishments to these law offenders. People have different ways of walking, thinking or acting. When one begins to know an individual there begins to emerge a pattern in train of thoughts. These behavioral patterns and traits are usually studied by the behavioral scientist. For instance the law enforcement uses such behavioral studies to monitor dangerous criminals like serial killers (Axelrod Antinozzi 2002 p.22). Deep inside the mind of criminals there is psychological reasoning behind the actions that they commit. A criminal will therefore leave a signature or a pattern behind which helps the investigators of the crime scene in analyzing information regarding the crime. Classical criminologists view human beings as rational and capable of making free choices. In a well organized society that has rational system of criminal justice therefore, any crime should be defined as the product of an irrational decision. According to Axelrod Antinozzi (2002), all behavior is reduced to avoidance of pain and seeking of pleasure. The main question of the criminal justice system is therefore how to make crime less pleasurable and more painful to the criminals (p.26). From the perspective of those intending to commit a crime, the pain involved should be more painful than breaking the law is worth. Only by making the punishment this way will the Criminal Justice System be able to discourage criminals and those intending to be criminals from indulging into crime. Otherwise if the pain gotten from committing a crime is equal or worth the pleasure derived from the committing it then many would go on committing the crime. The end punishment should always be meant to p revent the criminal from doing further harm to the society after refrain others from committing similar offences. The criminal justice system should therefore be able to choose punishments that will a strong and lasting impression on the mind of the criminal.

Woodstock 1969 :: essays research papers

When the word "Woodstock" is mentioned, what do you think of? Perhaps you think of the little yellow bird from the Peanuts cartoons, or maybe you think of a small town in New York. However, you also might know that Woodstock was the largest and most famous of all rock festivals. The Woodstock Music & Art Festival took place on Friday, Saturday, and Sunday, August 15th, 16th, and 17th, 1969. As you can imagine, a concert like Woodstock would have had to be planned very carefully. It didn’t just happen. Four young partners Michael Lang, the manager of a rock band, Artie Kornfeld, and executive of Capital Records, and two venture capitalists, John Roberts and Joel Rosenman, created Woodstock. Their original plan had been to build a recording studio in Woodstock, a small town in the Catskill Mountains, which had become a rock center. To promote the idea of the studio, the four partners decided to stage a concert, which they called Woodstock. Naming it after the town in which it was originally going to take place in. It started out as a moneymaking venture a rock concert, pure and simple. An attempt to duplicate or maybe even surpass the success of Monterey Pop, which attracted 50,000 people two years earlier. The Woodstock Festival was expected to attract 50,000 to 100,000 people. In the town of Woodstock, local residents became fearful about the possibility of a hippie invasion. The location was changed from the village of Woodstock, to the town of Wallkill, then finally to a farm at White Lake in the town of Bethel. The name was retained. They rented a 70 acre field from a prominent local dairy farmer, Max Yasgur, who owned land about 48 miles from Woodstock, in Bethel. Days before the festival, Upstate New York was ready. The city, county and state officials knew what to expect, and felt confident in their abilities to handle traffic, crowd control, sanitation, medical emergencies, and any unexpected problems. Finally, the day before the official opening, traffic jams up to 20 miles long blocked most roads leading to the area. On August 15th, the first day, the management was unable to monitor the estimated 400,000 or more people, and decided to abandon attempts at ticket taking because hundreds of thousands of people simply climbed over fences. For three days, the small town of Bethel, was the state’s third-largest city, with an estimated population range between 300,000 and 400,000 people.

Education Essay -- Teaching Education

Education Education has always been a major priority for me. I was brought up in a family that was centered on education. Both of my grandma’s were teachers. I have sixteen aunts and uncles and all but 3 of them have college degrees. Ten of those a master’s degree, and 4 of them went on to earn their PhD. My parents are both college graduates. Ever since I’ve been old enough to really understand things, they have stressed how important it is to be educated. So growing up I found education to be a vitally important part of my life. Education helps build you up. It allows you to do things that you are not able to do without an education. It is like the old saying, â€Å"education is the building block that makes America grow.† The same can be said for myself. My education is what con...

Final Essay: Veteran’s Education Essay

In the essay â€Å"The Veterans are coming! The Veterans are coming!† by Edward F. Palm, the author mentioned that he continued his education by attending school after his Marine duties. Palm directed his messages of the essay toward the students and faculties at colleges on how to allow veterans to feel welcome to the school. Through the usages of his personal stories as a veteran himself, the author can also give advices to future veterans who wish to return to school. In order to present his ideas, Palm relied on his ability to utilize logos, pathos, and ethos appeals to allow audiences to believe in his credibility. The author used logical appeal to show the audiences the benefits that veterans get after serving the war since 1945. The door of opportunity had open for veterans through the laws of the World War II GI Bill, which allowed tuition fees, books, living allowance. Moreover, the GI bill also allows veterans to transfer their educational benefits to their spouses or children (Palm 790). With this detail, the author relied on the integrity of the Congress act (GI Bill) to explain that Veterans are encouraged to continue their education after they have finished their duties in the service. By years of serving wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, veterans will get financial supports and many other educational benefits that are given to them as rewards for their service. Many veterans are allowed to enter the door of education with many benefits. Yet, the author mentioned that veterans who came back from the wars were not â€Å"one-hundred percent welcomed† to continue their education in the colleges and universities. The author used emotional appeal to show the audiences how the veterans feel when they go to school. The author stated, â€Å"Either way, we in academe stand to gain. The question is, are we really ready to welcome today’s veterans into our midst?† (Palm 790). Representing for other veterans, the author showed the audiences his concerns of how veterans are treated. The author mentioned that veterans felt that they are the target of suspicions by many schools because people view veterans negatively through stigmas that are â€Å"repeatedly portrayed in the media as psychologically  maimed and socially debilitated and, therefore, potentially dangerous† (Palm 791). For this reason, he presented a list of advices to the schools from his own perspective as a war veteran to create changes toward a more â€Å"veteran-friendly school†. Standing up for veterans, the authors apply ethical appeals toward the audiences to ask for fair treatment toward the veterans. The author proposed five advices of giving veterans reasonable treatments. One of the advices was that the author proposed that â€Å"treat veterans as you would any other students.† With this in mind, the author expressed that veterans do not want any special attention and wished that classmates and professors to view them as any other students. Moreover, the author mentioned that many people came up to veteran students and thank them for their services (Palm 792). The author mentioned that it could make veterans feel uncomfortable. To further explain, the author said that many veterans would misunderstand the sincerity thank as â€Å"I’m glad you went so that my son or daughter didn’t have to go.† Listing his advices out for the audiences, the author tried to convince the audiences to take his advices of proper ways to view and treat veterans in school. Throughout the essay, Palm mentioned how much veterans are looking forward for their future education after the war. With the support of his personal stories, the author hoped to sway the audience into believing that veterans do not deserve to be treated differently. Work Cited Lunsford, Andrea A., John J. Ruszkiewicz, and Keith Walters. (2012). _Everything’s an Argument with Readings._ 6th ed. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s. Palm, Edward. â€Å"The Veterans Are Coming! The Veterans Are Coming!† Everything’s an Argument with Reading. Ed. Lunsford, Andrea A., John J. Ruszkiewicz, and Keith Walters. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2012.

Commerce Clause & Health Care

The Commerce Clause was merely placed in our Constitution to ensure that states couldn’t establish laws or regulations that would hinder with trade and economic commerce, in result gave Congress the power â€Å"to regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian Tribes. † To me, the Commerce Clause was once legitimate in the sense that the economic activity was mainly trade based and to prevent the intense rivalry among states, Congress needed to have the power to control interstate commerce to render conflicts. When creating and establishing the Commerce Clause I believe it could have been thought through and furthermore written in a more distinct and detailed way to accommodate the issues we have had. Because it wasn’t stated, U. S. Supreme Court ruled Congress to control intrastate commerce as long as the commerce significantly affects commerce involving more than one state, resulting from Gibbons v. Ogden. Sometimes I wonder if it’s realistic to think Congress will get to the point of controlling every aspect of our life, until something like the Affordable Care Act comes into consideration and keeps me questioning, what will be next. The Government’s argue is, under the Commerce Clause that Congress has the power to mandate the Affordable Care Act. Their philosophy is that Congress can demand people to buy health insurance, and if they refuse, then it would be affecting interstate commerce weakening the Act’s other developments. Their reasoning is that there are individuals who currently do not have medical insurance that are making a remarkable amount of visits to the doctor. In result, leaving hospitals reaching out to insurance companies to recover what they didn’t get paid for treating the non-insured. Consequently, insurance companies will start raising premiums higher and higher which will penalize those who already have insurance and those who reach out for insurance where premiums have raised to a point that it is unaffordable for the average citizen, then the problem will get worse. The argument against the Affordable Care Act is that it violates the Commerce clause regarding the fact that Congress has the power to regulate interstate commerce and intrastate commerce as long as the conflict in commerce is among more than one state. Some states, like Virginia, have passed or are in consideration of declaring a law that the Affordable Care Act can’t be enforced in their States. In the article on the Reuter’s website it says, â€Å"State legislators in Maine, Montana, Nebraska, Oregon, Texas, and Wyoming have introduced bills that establish penalties, including fines and jail time, for any agent seeking to enforce the healthcare law within their states’ borders. Congress has the power to do most of which they feel capable of doing and if they can prove a good enough argument to the Supreme Court that inactivity affects interstate commerce then I think no matter what the States arguments are going to be shut down. Regarding tax, the Government argues that if their power under the commerce clause doesn’t support the mandate, then they will implement the power of Congress to tax. The mandate was Congress’s solution to those who decided they weren’t going to get health insura nce, preventing cost shifting. Cost shifting was their answer as to why they can force the individual mandate and it’s because the â€Å"failure to purchase insurance has a substantial and deleterious effect on interstate commerce. † The Government believes that health care at some point in life is unavoidable, whether it’s an emergency or through insurance, that’s why they have created the individual mandate penalty to refrain from premiums rising. The main argument against the mandated tax is that when lobbying for the bill, President Obama stated that there would not be a new tax involved with the individual mandate requiring coverage. But the penalty will be collected through tax filings and the Federal Government says that the fine is in their power to levy. From the Reuter’s article it says, â€Å"States say the U. S. Government does not have the authority to charge the fine and point to the discrepancy between Obama’s statements and the U. S. Government’s arguments. † Government regulation in business is everywhere, from advertising, employment and labor, privacy, environmental, and safety and health issues. The ultimate reason there are so many regulations is so that consumers are protected and it helps businesses to thrive at the same time. What is so interesting about the law is that we have a firm foundation, but the law will always be changing because with time there will come a new circumstance with no precedent that will cause a controversy like the Affordable Care Act itself. I just hope it doesn’t get to the point that the Government abuses its powers given to them by the framers who created our Constitution to resolve conflict, not create it.

Professor Howard Zinn’s purpose for writing “A People’s History of the United States”

1. In a nutshell, Professor Howard Zinn’s purpose for writing â€Å"A People’s History of the United States† was to offer a history of the United States (from the first settlers all the way to the mid ­1970’s at the time of publishing) that did not outright lie or â€Å"sugar coat† our country’s past. Furthermore, Zenn seeks to avoid manipulating our history as a means to calm the reader, albeit causing controversy when his book first debuted.Additionally, in the word’s of the author himself, â€Å"If history is to be creative, to anticipate a possible future without denying the past, it should, I believe, emphasize new possibilities by disclosing those hidden episodes of the past when, even if in brief flashes, people showed their ability to resist, to join together, occasionally to win. I am supposing, or perhaps only hoping, that our future may be found in the past's fugitive moments of compassion rather than in its solid centuri es of warfare.†By this, I’m confident one of his goals was to demonstrate the impact of the human spirit and how even though â€Å"A People’s History of the United States† is filled with the sad reality that conflict is always present in our society, it also shows that sometimes good triumphs over evil and that maybe history doesn’t have to repeat itself once more. 2.The thesis for pages 1 ­11 of, â€Å"A People’s History of the United States† essentially revolves around the statement, â€Å"It is enough to make us question, for that time and ours, the excuse of progress in the annihilation of races, and the telling of history from the standpoint of the conquerors and leaders of Western civilization. † This is a concise summary of pages 1 ­11, stating the claim of Zenn’s underlying argument in regards to all the information presented in the first chapter. 3. Howard Zinn held the now ­mainstream idea that traditional (school) history

Michael Jordan & Basketball

When someone says the name Michael Jordan, the first thing that comes to mind is basketball, The Chicago Bulls and Nike shoes. Through the years, Michael Jordan has proved time and time again that he is the greatest basketball player ever, and by performing in this rapidly expanding sporting field, he has gained tremendous popularity throughout the world. People of all ages and from all nationalities have gathered to watch him play. A journalist states ‘even your Aunt Matilda might not know nothing about basketball, liked watching him play† (Jonathon 1999:58). Jordan has become more than just an entertainer. He is a hero and a role model amongst basketball spectators. Johnson claims that ‘he is the most famous American in the world† (ibid.). Perhaps he was born to be the best. Even though he is a star, Michael†s childhood had been very distressing. In fact, Michael Jordan was nearly miscarried by his mother. His nose bled from birth till he was five, he nearly suffocated when he fell behind the bed as a baby and nearly killed himself when an electrocution threw him three feet. In Jordan†s own words, he exclaims I mean my girlfriend got swept in a flood and drowned when we were in college. Another time, I was swimming with a friend when both of us got pulled into the ocean by a strong undertow. I was able to get free and make it back to land. He never made it back (Jordan 1998:96). Additionally, after going through so many traumatic and distressing times, not many people would have been able to live their dreams. But Jordan performed the task of living his dream exceptionally well. Despite a somewhat desperate childhood, Michael Jordan enjoyed his time at school. He did his first years of schooling at D.C. Virgo Junior High School and later graduated to Lanley High School where he began practicing intensively on his basketball skills. He was accepted in the University of North Carolina through a basketball scholarship. At the university, Michael took on the challenge of driving his teammates to a level of performance that they might never have achieved on their own. He scored the winning basket in the National Collegiate Athletic Association championship game in 1982. A sportswriter describes ‘the relentlessness with which Michael Jordan prodded and cajoled the other players in leading them to championship season after championship season† (Lazenby 1996:37). The glorious moments achieved by Michael Jordan were soon vaporised by a permanent shadow. In 1993, an agonising incident shattered Jordan†s excitement after winning his third championship. Moments after the game, Michael†s father, James Jordan, was brutally murdered by two ruthless teenagers. This was a severe tragedy in Michael†s life; his father was gone. For this reason, Michael decided to retire from Basketball and play Baseball in memory of his father. This was because James Jordan adored Baseball (Jordan 1998:112). He signed a minor league contract with the Chicago White Sox, but was unsuccessful (Encarta 1999). Hence Jordan returned to his favorable professional sport of basketball. Allison exclaims ‘at a press conference, Michael only said two words, I†m back!† (Samuels 1999). The ball started to roll again. But the anxiety of the spectators only lasted till the end of 1997. By far, the Chicago Bulls had been hit the hardest with the news of Jordan†s retirement. The breakup arose when the management refused to pay Phil Jackson, coach of the Chicago Bulls, what he deserved after bringing six NBA championships to the Bulls. When Jackson abandoned the team, Jordan refused to play for a new coach. After Jordan officially announced his retirement, basketball great, Scottie Pippen was traded to the Houston Rockets. Only four players of the previous year†s team still remained on the Chicago Bulls. Stein considers ‘many have made the prediction that the bulls will lose mare games in this shortened season than they did all last year† (Stein 1999). The die-hard Chicago Bulls fans will always hold a special place in their heart for Michael Jordan. They will tell their sons and daughters about him, they will get out the old VHS tapes of games that they have recorded and they will pass along basketball cards that will be worth hundreds of dollars. Those of us who have seen him play will always remember him and what he has done for the game of basketball. For those who haven†t will have to settle for the endless highlight reels and Nike commercials to keep his memory alive.

Real Estate Development Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4250 words

Real Estate Development - Case Study Example to protect the flat site which is several metres below the level of the Canal). The western boundary is provided by Gilmore Park. The eastern boundary is formed by another development site that is in the process of being redeveloped (the buildings on this adjoining site have already been demolished and the site leveled). The northern boundary comprises a block of tenement properties (forming the north-west corner of the site) and a main road (Fountain Bridge). The total area of the site is 11,500m2. The site is fully serviced with boundaries clearly marked and established. The owner, Scottish & Newcastle, will offer the property for (freehold) sale with vacant possession. There will be no disturbance costs and it is expected that the demolition of the existing structures and their removal from site will cost 50,000. The site may contain contamination therefore a sum of 50,000 should be included in appraisals to cover for such an eventuality. The Fountainbridge area has undergone considerable change in recent years. Since the announcement that Scottish and Newcastle intended to close Fountain Brewery, the area has continued to be the subject of development pressure. The area occupies a strategically important location to the west of the city centre, close to the Exchange, Tollcross and Haymarket. It also incorporates an important waterway, the Union Canal. The opportunity exists to create a quality urban environment, exploiting and enhancing its distinctive canal side location and establishing important linkages through the Fountainbridge area and beyond. Brewery buildings and structures, all of which are redundant, dominate the existing townscape. Adjacent to Lochrin basin, which is the modern day terminus of the Union Canal, new office, leisure and residential developments have sprung up. Existing residential properties in the Grove Street area and around Gilmore Place/Lochrin Place are located adjacent to some of the key redevelopment opportunity sites in the Fountainbridge area. Other existing uses provide a mix of predominantly commercial, leisure and industrial premises, some of which are underused or vacant. The area is well served by three main east-west transport routes. The West Approach Road and Dundee Street/Fountainbridge both carry high volumes of vehicular traffic into and through the area. The Union canal provides an important pedestrian and cycle link through the area, with the potential for greater use by boats as part of the Millennium Link. North-south links are much less well defined. Context of Policy The development plan covering the Fountainbridge area is the Central Edinburgh Local Plan (adopted May 1997) and the Edinburgh and the Lothian's Structure Plan 2015 (approved June 2004). In terms of current planning, the majority of the site falls within an 'existing industrial area' designation. In general, business and industrial development, including

Write a response paper about the given article Essay

Write a response paper about the given article - Essay Example s Somers, the author of the article refutes this common belief and illustrates how using the dictionary authored by Webster in its unedited versions presents a wealth of vocabulary and its usage in English. This paper will offer a response to the article by James Somers. James Somers is the author of the article that criticizes many modern dictionaries. Having spent a lot of time with McPhee, a great novelist and author in the American society, Somers developed an interest in the English. Although he had opined that his dictionary was a reliable companion to improve his vocabulary, he really used it. However, he noted the differences in McPhee’s use of the English language a specifically his continued use of a unique dictionary. These two aspects prompted to inquire from McPhee on the differences between his preferred dictionary and those used by many people. Although initially it was his responsibility to find out why this happens, McPhee first illustrated how the meaning of Webster’s book was outstanding and the concepts introduced by the dictionary proved to be very compelling. After Somers discovered that the Webster dictionary was the critical tool that McPhee had relied on, Somers ventured into its use. Over many years, he has be en using the same dictionary which has immensely improved his written and spoken English (Somers n.p). In this article, Somers’s introduces his subject by illustrating how words are searched in the dictionary and the kind of responses yielded by the searches. Using an example of the term â€Å"Sport,† he demonstrates to the leader how limiting many dictionaries are in offering relevant and more provisional results. Using the testimonial from McPhee, the author develops his argument basing it on his comparison of the description of words in the Webster dictionary as well as other common dictionaries. Using words such as sport, fustian and pathos, the author elaborates the differences between the two dictionaries. After giving an

SOAP Note Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

SOAP Note - Essay Example As a pharmacist, I have employed SOAP note format on various occasions, one of which involved a 62 year old woman. She came to the CVS clinic complaining of constipation and inquired on the availability of any drug that could assist in countering the condition. After careful assessment, I recommended her Senokot tablet. I did this after following SOAP note format for collecting information about the patient. The first questions I asked the patient were subjective and aimed at knowing how the patient felt. They aimed at knowing the symptoms of the condition the patient had. Constipation was the main problem the woman had. However, it was accompanied with abdominal pain and regular movement of the bowel (Ferrell, Betty & Nessa 516). She informed me that the first time she experienced the problem was two weeks ago and that it has occurred daily since then. After constipation, she usually looses appetite for several hours. I carried out an objective observation of the patient and this started by first asking the patient other conditions that she suffers from. I sought to know if she had heart disease or bowel disorder such as Crohn’s disease. She did not have any other disease or condition and was not under any other medication. However, her abdomen was swollen and there were infrequent actions of the bowel. Subsequently, I carried out an assessment of the patient and directed that some tests to be done to properly diagnose the condition. I found that she had hard stools and felt nausea and vomited at times. The tests I ordered to be carried out were blood tests, barium tests and colonoscopy. These were to determine weather the cause was hormonal imbalance or colon obstruction respectively. . The patient complained of abdominal pain and regular abdominal movements. She also felt tired and dizzy even without doing any physical work. She also complained of

Political Rhetoric Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5000 words

Political Rhetoric - Essay Example The Institute is a think-thank which offers its expertise and research to progressives to help the latter understand and learn how to communicate effectively their messages across. 1 Lakoff’s contribution to political rhetoric is his study of metaphors in relation to political discourse. Lakoff asserts that metaphors are not merely occasional figures of speech but is a cognitive phenomenon implying that language in itself is metaphorical. The ability to create metaphors is made possible by the use of a source domain as a reference to a target domain using areas of experience or semantic frames. Thus the metaphor war on terror and others like it coined to refer to the 9/11 incident was drawn from the war frame idea signifying a relentless battle against an enemy. 2 The function of metaphors in political rhetoric, according to Lakoff, is that they determine how people perceive phenomena and hence, how they act. Metaphors likewise act to highlight a particular aspect of a phenomenon whilst concealing some other aspects. In addition, Lakoff theorises that the processes of thinking are structured metaphorically which is turn is reflected by speech but when met aphors are used intentionally, they become debatable. 3 Murray Edelman (1919-2001) was a multi-awarded professor who taught at the University of Illinois and the University of Wisconsin until his death in 2001. He initially focused his attention in the field of labour-management relations but eventually turned to the subject of symbolic politics and the subjective part of politics and power, which would pre-occupy him in the next forty years of his life. Some of his works are: The Symbolic Uses of Politics in 1964; Politics as a Symbolic Action: Mass Arousal and Quiescence in 1971; Political Language: Words that Succeed and Politics that Fail in 1977; Constructing the Political Spectacle in 1995, and; The Politics of Misinformation in 2001. 4 Edelman’s books were seen as major

Significance of the Awareness of the Issue of Racism Essay

Significance of the Awareness of the Issue of Racism - Essay Example Considering the notion that had races been socially constructed, then racism would have guaranteed to be a derivative of race and the resultant from social experiences as well. Racism is defined as a belief whereby it is considered as being higher for one race as compared to the other ones. Racism is a subject that shakes the basis of the world population as it sparks off controversies left, right and center. People usually do not speak highly of this subject and would better like to be disassociated with it rather than the other way around. (Kolchin, 2003) There are two distinct schools of thought when one thinks of the racism subject. These align themselves with the question of racism in America as well as its rationales. (Weinberg, 1996) The social psychologists and the sociological theorists are the two broad categories. The scapegoat theory argues that in times gone by, members of the dominant group in the United States have protected a number of different frustrations in their desire to achieve social as well as financial success and also to find expression for these aggravations in the form of anger towards other racial groups. On the other hand, the authoritarian theory is more or less typified by a propensity to rigidly characterize people. The sociological theories focus more on the institutional role played by racism itself. Therefore it would not be wrong here to state that racism appears to be a mixture of the scapegoat, authoritarian as well as the sociological theories surrounding it. While a number of people without hum an intervention characterize the people into groups, they also have the capacity to turn these groups into a series of aggression activities. However, the reason from this may be the lack of involvement connected with the people hailed in a category or a class of their own that is known as the groups other than the one that can be classified in the true sense of the word.

Operations Management (Quality Control in Operations) Essay

Operations Management (Quality Control in Operations) - Essay Example (2) The planned systematic activities necessary to ensure that a component, module, or system conforms to established technical requirements. (3) The policy and procedures, established in an organization which is meant for the purpose of providing and maintaining a specified degree of confidence in data integrity and accuracy throughout the life cycle of the data. If the process is not established and the standard procedures are not adhered to, then it will result in poor quality. As a consequence the deadlines will not be met within the required time frame and subsequently deliverables to the customer will be delayed. Thus productivity is affected. The cost of a product includes the manufacturing cost and cost of quality. The cost of quality is the money spent what it would cost to build a product right the first time. If every worker could produce the defect-free products the first time, COQ would be zero. Since this situation would not occur, there are associated with getting defect free product is produced. Prevention: Monoey required to prevent errors and to do the right first time is considered prevention costs. This category includes money spent on establishing methods and procedures, training procedures, training workers and planning for quality.

Relatinoship between alcohol anonymous and aclcohol addicted patients Research Proposal

Relatinoship between alcohol anonymous and aclcohol addicted patients - Research Proposal Example Second, heavy drinking is regarded as taking two bottles or more on daily basis for men or one bottle on daily basis for women. The intake of alcohol is known dissimilar effects on individuals depending on age, gender, health status and diet among others. Further, moderate drinking is associated with drinking a maximum of two bottles for men or one bottle of alcohol for women on daily basis. Nonetheless, there are certain categories of people who are disallowed from drinking such as pregnant women, people on medication, under age and people operating machineries. The objective of this research study is to examine the relationship between AA addicted patients who attend AA meeting as compared to those that do not attend the meetings. This research study will concentrate on the AA group through a randomized trial. The trial will be performed and participants’ behavior will be tracked for a period of 6 months to one year. The information generated will be analyzed to examine whet her there is a link between AA attendances. This link will include a P-value less than 0.05 and a confidence interval of 95% and the corresponding relative risk. Introduction Over 2 million people aged 12 or older in the U.S. received treatment for an alcohol problem in 2009 (Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 2010). Alcohol, ethyl alcohol and ethanol are intoxicating substances that depress the central nervous system and has effects on the functioning of the body. The effects depend on the quantity and number of times taken. When taken, they act as stimulants in the body and may affect the rate of alertness on an individual. Researchers have pointed out that alcohol use is risky to the health of individual causing ailments such as cancer, heart diseases, pregnancy-related complications, headache among others. Alcohol is a drug that is common and taken by many people nationally and globally. Drinking alcohol problems has been attributed to risk factors such a s steady drinking on a regular basis, social and cultural factors. According to CDC, between 2001 and 2005, about 1729 deaths due to excessive drinking were recorded in Virginia. Out of this number, about 1260 were male while 469 were female. Over the same period, the number of deaths due to excessive recorded in the US was 57,852 of which 57,852 were male while 22,522 were female (Curran, 2008) Critical Analysis Kingree and Thompson (2011) examine association between two types of AA participation namely: meeting attendance and having a sponsor. This study recruited 268 participants from three treatments programs in South Carolina. Although the authors did not provide a conclusion nor confidence interval nor relative risk for this study, the main finding that is interesting is that P-value was use to provide analysis to explain that abstinence from alcohol is significant. Nonetheless, the article did not have conclusion and other necessary closing remarks that are crucial for the re aders and future research. Kell Et al (2011) examine the relationship among AA; spirituality/religiousness and alcohol use found that AA leads to better alcohol use outcomes, by enhancing spiritual practices. This study collected 952 males and 774 female and followed for 15 months. This study was conducted in a randomized control trial Caucasian man. Also, P- value was providing for data analysis, but no relative risk or confidence inte

I can read letters on topics within my areas of academic or Essay

I can read letters on topics within my areas of academic or professional speciality or interest and grasp the most important points - Essay Example Their heirs to obstruction continue in the attempt today. Their burden is greater because of progress that was achieved by Presidents Kennedy, Johnson, and Obama. Obama, especially, is responsible for heaping coals of fire on the heads of his political opponents who will not accept the fact that he was, twice, elected president and was able to provide health care to millions, both against great odds. I continue to be amazed by President Obama’s ability to continue his work with grace and dignity in the face of an onslaught of lies, contempt, obstruction, and insults. It is a lesson to any who will observe him with an open mind that we must not repay his offenders in kind, even when we are witness to abusive and retaliatory actions by them when they gain power. The letter on political tolerance focuses on the opposition faced by presidents in the United States. The writer sends the letter in a bid to advocate for tolerance, patience and dignity in political dealings. One section focuses on the hatred geared towards Mr. Hoover during his tenure. The writer recalls the mother’s advice that political intolerance causes hate and serves little in problem solving. The letter mentions that President Roosevelt encountered several challenges form his opposition. His view of progress was often received as controversial and wrong for the American people. In the same manner, presidents like Kennedy, Johnson and Barrack Obama often faced similar opposition. The letter then focuses on Obama and praises the president for his response towards his opposition. Specifically, the writer acknowledges the president’s re-election to office and his resilience despite bitter politics. The letter concludes that a great leader responds to opposition wi th kindness and tolerance. The letter sparks interest as it addresses an issue of key concern in America politics. Political divide along ideology is expected in every

Evolution Of Female Sexual Identitity Essay Example for Free

Evolution Of Female Sexual Identitity Essay Female sexuality and their sexual identity is categorically becoming less â€Å"straight†. Emerging expressions of human sexuality in females once considered â€Å"abnormal† like bisexuality and bi-curious behavior- specifically in Americans under the age of 40, have gone from a shaming `closeted` behavior, to significantly more `normal` and overt. This paper will discuss the evolution of female sexuality from the 1950s to the present as perception and expression of female sexuality underwent significant undermining and rethinking in the past half decade. The paper relied on various sources that documented this â€Å"emergence† to support the above-mentioned thesis. Human Sexuality   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Britannica Online defines sexuality as human tendencies and behavior associated with sexual arousal. It is how humans express sexual sensation and intimacy and is largely influenced by biological/physiological circumstances, societal attitudes towards sexual behavior, and one’s leniencies and/or psychological make-up.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   A person’s anatomy can only set so many boundaries on one’s sexual behavior. Many variations in human sexuality occur through a person’s upbringing and habituation. Cultural differences often instigates enormous variations as a certain sexual behavior may be considered taboo or deviant in one society while others may consider the same behavior to be perfectly acceptable and healthy.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Sexuality includes under its wide umbrella discussions aside from actual physiology other topics such as those on gender, sexual orientation, personal acceptance of sexuality (how we view our sexuality which may differ from our actual physiology), sexual dysfunctions, sexual activity, social sexual structures (marriage, morality, and legal aspects), sexual misconduct, sex in the media and sex education as well as research on sex and sexuality among others. Throughout history, every aspect of human life has allocated a generous portion to sexuality. There are always laws, in every society and in every era as to how sexual behavior is to be enacted. Sexuality and societies views towards it have changed continually throughout the ages. Human sexuality has many aspects to it; defining who, what when, where, why, and how we are to express sexuality. Human physiology has an enormous effect on our sexuality. Genetics decides how the rest of human life will be played out. A person’s sex will have innumerable consequences during the course of life. Many factors determine the sex of a person. Hormonal changes during pregnancy, the time of conception, even temperatures dictate the sex of an unborn baby. Human physiology, culture, and preference, as well a variety of other factors makes certain forms of sexual expression possible. Society plays an equally immense part on human sexuality. Social norms affect how sexuality can be expressed.   Sexuality is part of human social environment, guided by rules of behavior. Society is, in parts large or small, responsible for the way a person’s self schema, self-esteem, self-efficacy, among others. Gender is a function of a person’s social milieu and it must be noted that cross-cultural differences in behavioral attributes towards sex thus, differing effects on gender. The cultures to which we belong dictate our sexual behavior throughout life. Human sexuality is in a great part a function of the cultural norms of our societies; such as customs regarding marriage, homosexuality, and self-eroticism, among others. Often these norms are dictated by politics and religion, etc. Subcultures are formed when an individual’s sexuality dissents from the conventions of the local culture. Because culture dictates what is proper in bed many sex issues are taboos conceived by society. Feedbacks from the society around us at large exert a great influence on sexual behavior and to some extent even sexual performance. The possibility of an unfulfilled sexual desire because of cultural influences as to what is right and wrong happens as a result of the lack of communication. Also education on sexuality and health plays a part in the proper and healthy expression of sexuality. Changes in how women expressed themselves have gone through a significant change over the years following WWII. Sexuality in females and how they identify themselves sexually is now more open to the fluidity of sexual expressions. Female Sexuality The world shifted from valuing women equally with men to a patriarchal society that gave less and less premium on the female population and their significance in human civilizations. According to Francoeur et. al. in Female Sexuality: Challenging Cultural Repression, human cultures   experienced this change in an Axial period as early as the first millennium. This occurred in three separate geographic locations: in China; India and Persia, in the Eastern Mediterranean (Israel and Greece). â€Å"The transformation consisted of a shift from being a female dominated consciousness to a male-dominated, individualistic consciousness†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Society changed from a mythical, collective, ritualistic culture to a more rigid, analytical, and rational one (Pastoetter, 2004). Women and their roles as well as their power and place in civilization gradually changed and eventually, the shift to a male-centered world due mainly to factors such as: the rise of a patriarchal, monotheistic Judaism, Islam and Christianity. Women began to take secondary positions to men until they have come to be considered secondary to males and even lesser individuals; a source of evil and corruption. The Second Axial period is the one we are going through right now. This is according to theologian Ewert Cousins(1981). Centuries old forces are building up and soon according to cousins, we will reach a point where society will have to set up a new equilibrium point. Friendship-pleasure based values are now gradually gaining momentum over heterosexual-coital-procreative values. However, to achieve more gender-equal societies, we must be able to first understand and solve issues of the repression of female sexuality worldwide. It is no secret that various forms of repression exist in societies worldwide in varying degrees as potential and actual damage. In their study, Francoeur et. al. (Female Sexuality: Challenging Cultural Repression), they discuss in Part 1, 12 years worth of sexological research showing that women in a lot of places worldwide are being sexually repressed and they hardly derive pleasure from their relationships. Examples of repression are prohibitions on talking or acknowledging sex, sexual needs and preferences even when talking to a spouse. The second part dealt with restrictions to loveplay such as female genital mutilation. Repression and lack of sexual gratification is a probable reason why many women are now found to be masturbating, cheating on their husbands, or seeking gratification from same sex relationships. Masturbation is a topic that is controversial with men but exponentially more so for women. According to, it was found out in research that over 95% of all men have masturbated and surprisingly an enormous percentage of women at 89% also practiced self-eroticism. The practice of masturbation is a constant source of shame and ridicule even for men despite of the mounting number of studies that disprove the myths surrounding self-stimulation; even the researches that prove that masturbation is indeed a physically as well as psychologically healthy practice isn’t gaining much acceptance (Vause, 2004). In more liberal societies, female masturbation raises the question of why they do it and the reverberant answer is that, they are not getting enough sexual gratification from their sexual partners. Unfortunately, in spite of sexual fulfillment being healthy for partners, sexual double standards, sexual repression, and centuries of bad rep stifle women’s efforts to achieve fulfillment either through their partners or by doing it themselves (Vause, 2004). Another possible repercussion of the repression that women are getting even in this day and age is, especially for married women, to seek an outside â€Å"source† of sexual pleasure; outside meaning extra-marital. Adultery among married, â€Å"Christian women†, was recorded by Michelle Langley, in Womens Infidelity: Living in Limbo: What Women Really Mean When They Say, Im Not Happy,† as cited in â€Å"In Search of Intimacy; Wandering Wives† by Sybil C. Mitchell. The ten-year study shows women are as much prone to cheat on their spouses as their husbands are. In fact she goes further by adding that it may even take a lot more effort for women, who are by their nature just moving into their sexual prime, than men who by the time they 30 are slowly moving off of their sexual peak. It is remarkable to note though, the different treatments that society has given in view of men and women’s infidelities. Even in indiscretions/sin men are less likely to be persecuted (sometimes they are even glorified for it), than women (Mitchell, 2005). What women have to realize is that the affair or string of affairs is indicative of something more deeply seated in her, said Taylor. A woman feels a deficiency within herself. And certainly, there may be issues that both the husband and wife need to deal with together. Said an Christian minister, Elder Anthony Taylor (Mitchell, 2005). Another emerging trend in female sexuality from the 50s to the present is the rise of homosexuals (lesbians), Bisexual, and bi-curious women. Considered part of the wide rubric of human sexual variation, the three above-mentioned categories have recently enjoyed a lot of limelight with all the kissing on national TV and in bars all over the metro. Homosexuality is an increasingly familiar phenomena nowadays and not just with gay men,; the population of women who are exclusively attracted to another woman in all aspects of human personality. Another emerging trend is the Bisexuals. According to the pioneering study by Alfred Kinsey, human sexuality is not black and white, straight or gay; rather, he believes it is a continuum. His findings show that although there is a pronounced polarization of sexuality as either exclusively heterosexual or homo sexual, there is also a significant part that is in-between. Kinsey model was drastically improved upon by Fritz Kline’s Sexual Orientation Grid that had the bisexual option. Although, disputes still rage as to the acceptability of bisexuals in established social groups that include even homosexuals. The debate about what qualifies as bisexual still rages on and though some say that it is only the stepping stone to homosexuality, others argue that it is indeed a distinct possibility that a person may be able to relate to both sexes (Fairyington, 2005). In the paper, The Vagina Dialogues; Bi-curious women are here but not quite queer. Welcome to the new Lesbian Chic, the authors discussed a new breed of women who are straight but are kissing and groping even having sex with other women. They are not bisexuals, nor are they exclusively homosexual. They are called Bi-curious women. According to studies a large number of women involved in these kinds of relationships tend to do it for the viewing pleasure of a man while others contest simply liking the act as the primary reason for their involvement. At any rate, these women occupy an even more controversial status than bisexuals as even the lesbian community is â€Å"getting tired† of girls who want to try kissing another girl (The Vagina Dialogues; Bi-curious women are here but not quite queer. Welcome to the new lesbian chic, 2005). In many clubs like the Axis Club in Phoenix, many â€Å"lesbian† couplings are sighted. In fact, it is so common in bars like this that you almost expect them. Homosexual or girl-to-girl activity is often seen in pornography targeting men (The Vagina Dialogues; Bi-curious women are here but not quite queer. Welcome to the new lesbian chic, 2005). In conclusion, it safe to note that indeed, times are changing and with it so are the views and practices â€Å"behind closed doors† especially as it relates to women. New trends in a sexually dichotomous society such as America are emerging and the rest of the world is taking the hint. Endnotes: â€Å"Call them bi-curious. These women dont come out so much as try it out think Anne Heche, not Ellen DeGeneres. Men are in their past; men may be in their future. But for the moment, theyre hooking up with a woman, and its cool. Dabbling isnt particularly new. Straight women slept with other women long before June Miller taught Anaà ¯s Nin a thing or two. And female college students have long expressed their heightened consciousness by shagging their roommates. (Theres even a term for that: Lesbian Until Graduation, a.k.a. LUG.) But this is different. Ask an Arizona State University student today which of her friends has kissed another girl, and she may well fire back, Which one hasnt? When Pepper Schwartz, a sociologist at the University of Washington, wrote Sex and the Yale Student in 1971, the topic of bi-curious couplings never even came up. That would be impossible today, she notes. A pair of cute blond lesbians, Lauren Levin and Lauren Blitzer, has inked a deal to write a book called Same Sex in the City: So Your Prince Charming Is Really a Cinderella. It hits stores next spring. Its not underground anymore. It would have been unthinkable for the girls of Beverly Hills, 90210 to jump into bed together, but when Marissa and Alex did it last year on The OC, no one even feigned surprise. It was scandalous when Ellen came out; it was just another piece of celebrity gossip when she started hanging with the once-married Portia DiRossi. And so just like that, Jen Sincero found herself landing smack in the middle of the zeitgeist. The Straight Girls Guide made it to number 7 on the Los Angeles Times best-seller list. Sinceros Website started getting 8,500 hits a day. And Sincero began teaching workshops to girls who want to learn more, including one next week at Phoenixs MADE Art Boutique. The workshops almost always sell out. Even Sincero is shocked by that. These are people who not only want to have this taboo sex, but theyre willing to show up in public and admit it! she exalts. The reason for that is simple enough: Sex between two women isnt taboo anymore. Instead, its become so damn trendy that its changing the way we understand feminism, gay rights, and even human sexuality itself. (The Vagina Dialogues; Bi-curious women are here but not quite queer. Welcome to the new lesbian chic, 2005) † â€Å"Why is it so hard for us to wrap our minds around bisexuality? Our cultural struggle to conceptualize bisexuality stems in part from the freighted history of the term. When it first appeared in a dictionary in 1824, bisexual referred to people possessing the characteristics of both sexes, now referred to as intersexuals (or, popularly, as hermaphrodites). In the mid-1860s, Karl Heinrich Ulrich postulated that men who have same-sex desires have female souls trapped inside male bodies. Subsequent sex researchers argued that people who desire their own sex have an inverted gender identity. From this sort of logic it was deduced that bisexuals are psychosexual hermaphrodites. Freud upended the conversation on bisexuality beginning in the early 20th century when he used the term in the modern sense and hypothesized that all people are initially bisexual before a fixed, usually hetero-, sexual identity takes hold. Basing his theories upon contemporary ideas, later discredited, as to the biological bisexuality of the fetus, Freud hypothesized that everyone had a primary and innate bisexual disposition with respect to sex-object choice. But instead of arguing that bisexuality might be a normal manifestation of this inherent predisposition, Freud went on to spin an account of normal human development whereby same-sex desires are repressed or sublimated and heterosexual ones allowed to arise, relegating homosexuality and bisexuality to exceptional states that develop as the result of a series of psychological malfunctions.† (Fairyington, 2005) Reference: Fairyington, S. (2005). Bisexuality and the Case against Dualism. The Gay Lesbian Review Worldwide. Mitchell, S. C. (2005, Dec 17-Dec 21, 2005). In Search of Intimacy; Wandering Wives. Tri State Defender. Pastoetter, R. T. F. R. J. N. B. O.-O. J. (2004). FEMALE SEXUALITY TODAY: Challenging Cultural Repression. Cross Currents, 54(3), 55. The Vagina Dialogues; Bi-curious women are here but not quite queer. Welcome to the new lesbian chic. (2005, Sep 15, 2005). The Phoenix New Times. Vause, M. (2004). Doing IT Ourselves; FEMALE MASTURBATION PAST AND PRESENT. Charlottesville: Spring/Summer 2004.

Medical Device Regulations in the European Union

Medical Device Regulations in the European Union INTRODUCTION TO MEDICAL DEVICE REGULATIONS IN THE EUROPEAN UNION: A Medical Device under the jurisdiction of the European Union is defined as â€Å"an instrument, apparatus, appliance, material or other article, whether used alone or in combination, together with any software necessary for its proper application, which a) is intended by the manufacturer to be used for human beings for the purpose of i. diagnosis, prevention, monitoring, treatment or alleviation of disease, ii. diagnosis, monitoring, treatment, alleviation of or compensation for an injury or handicap, iii. investigation, replacement or modification of the anatomy or of a physiological process, or iv. control of conception; and b) does not achieve its principal intended action in or on the human body by pharmacological, immunological or metabolic means†.1 The clinical investigation and the subsequent introduction of a medical device in the European market is primarily regulated and governed by the MHRA (Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency) with the assistance of competent regulatory institutions called the Notified Bodies. â€Å"A Notified Body is a certification organization which the national authority (the Competent Authority) of a Member State designates to carry out one or more of the conformity assessment procedures described in the annexes of the Directives.†3 The MHRA regulates with the help of two sets of medical device regulations viz. the Statutory Instruments 2002 No.618 (Consolidated legislation) and 2003 No.1697. These legislations employ the three device directives issued by the competent authority into the european law. The directives help the manufacture in better understanding of the manufacturing and the requirments for inroduction into the market of the devices. These directives are: Directive 90/385/EEC: Active Implantable Medical Devices directive Directive 93/42/EEC: Medical Devices directive Directive 98/79/EC: In vitro Diagnostic Medical Device directive Directive 90/385/EEC: Active Implantable Medical Devices directive: This directive encompasses medical devices that are active(i.e powered) and implanted(i.e left in the human body). These include pacemakers, implantable defibrillators, implantable infusion pumps, cochlear implants and implantable neuromuscular stimulators etc. Regulations realizing the Directive came entirely into force in the United Kingdom on January 01 1995. Directive 93/42/EEC: Medical Devices directive: This directive covers an extensive array of devices from uncomplicated bandages to orthopaedic implants and high-end radiology apparatus. Regulations realizing the Directive came entirely into force in the United Kingdom on June 13 1998. Directive 98/79/EC: In vitro Diagnostic Medical Device directive: â€Å"This Directive covers any medical device, reagent, reagent product, kit, instrument, apparatus or system which is intended to be used for the invitro examination of substances derived from the human body, such as blood grouping reagents, pregnancy testing and Hepatitis B test kits. Regulations implementing the Directive came into force in the UK on 7th June 2000 with a transitional period until 7th December 2003. There is no clinical investigation system for in-vitro diagnostic medical devices. Performance evaluations of in vitro diagnostic devices that are performed outside the manufacturers premises should be notified to the UK Competent Authority in accordance with the Medical Devices Regulations 2002: Section 44.†2 The rationale backing these directives is to permit easy movement of the medical devices throughout the European Union whilst upholding high standards of device safety and up-to-the-mark quality. Classification of medical devices: Devices are classified purely based on risk associated with their use. Ranging from low risk to high risk, they are Class I, IIa, IIb and III. A classic example of a class III medical device is a cochlear implant, which is both active and implantable and thus comes under the purview of Directive 90/385/EEC: Active Implantable Medical Devices directive. Let us discuss in detail the regulatory requirments specified as per the MHRA to bring an active implantable cochlear implant into the market designated bt the European Union as the EFTA(European Free Trade Area). â€Å"Examples of AIMDs include: implantable cardiac pacemakers implantable defibrillators leads, electrodes, adaptors for 1) and 2) implantable nerve stimulators bladder stimulators sphincter stimulators diaphragm stimulators cochlear implants implantable active drug administration device catheters, sensors for 9) implantable active monitoring devices programmers, software, transmitters.†4 Cochlear Implants: â€Å"Cochlear implants are electronic hearing prostheses that bypass the damaged hearing components by providing electrical stimulation directly to the auditory nerve fibres in the cochlea. The electrical stimulation is interpreted by the brain as sound. Cochlear implants consist of an external microphone, speech processor and transmitter coil, and an internal stimulator (implanted under the skin just behind the ear) attached to a stimulation electrode which passes into the cochlea. A variation of the cochlear implant is the auditory brainstem implant where electrodes are implanted directly into the auditory area of the brainstem. This can be used in patients who do not have a functional auditory nerve.†5 The regulatory process of bringing a cochlear implant in the European market: It is mandated by law that the manufacturer who intends to bring the device into the EFTA abides by the Essential Requirments stated in the Directive 90/385/EEC: Active Implantable Medical Devices directive and demonstrate the compliance of the device with the safety and efficacy standards set forth in the directive. There are essentially two ways to do it viz. â€Å"either a compilation of the relevant scientific literature currently available on the intended purpose of the device and the techniques employed, together with, if appropriate, a written report containing a critical evaluation of the compilation; or the results and conclusions of a specifically designed clinical investigation†2 Product launch on the basis of evaluation and review of scientific literature can be considered as acceptable if equivalence can be scientifically demonstrated with a device existant in the market and routinely used in clinical practice. Equivalence has to be demonstrated w.r.t technology, critical performance, design, principles of operation, biological safety, population involved, conditions of use and clinical purpose. However, unless satisfactory evidence can be collected by means of scientific literature review, the use of a well-planned clinical trial/investigation should be considered as the best way to attest permissible levels of safety and efficacy. In case of scientific review or pre-clinical assessment, the following fees apply: Class I, IIa, or IIb other than implantable or long-term invasive:  £3,000 (Re-notification incase of objection by MHRA  £2,100). Class IIb implantable or long-term invasive, Class III, and active implantable:  £4,100 (Re-notification incase of objection by MHRA  £2,700). Applications for a proposed clinical investigation of the medical device should be made by filling the forms PCA1 and PCA2 along with the necessary information required by the clauses in the forms. Applications should be labeled clearly as â€Å"documentation only†. The use of English language is mandatory. Documentation should be clear and legible and remain so after reproduction. Electronic applications should be discussed with the MHRA. The manufacturer, for scrutiny by the MHRA should make a total of eight full submission copies available. The charges for the scrutiny of applications are laid out in the Medical Devices Regulations 2002: section 56. They are as follows: â€Å"Fees for Group A (low risk) devices are  £2,700 (initial application) or  £1,800 (resubmission). Increasing to  £3,000 and  £2,100 on 1st April 2008. Fees for Group B (high-risk) devices are  £3,800 (initial application) or  £2,400 (resubmission). Increasing to  £4,100 and  £2,700 on 1 st April 2008.†2 Applications should be forwarded to: Mrs Daniella Smolenska, Medicines Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA), European and Regulatory Affairs, Market Towers, 1 Nine Elms Lane, London, SW8 5NQ, Tel: 020 7084 3363, Email [emailprotected]. Approval from the MREC (Multi-centre Research Ethics Committee)/LREC (Local Research Ethics Committee) can be obtained along with the notification to the Competent Authority. However, a clinical investigation can begin only after approval has been obtained from the MREC/LREC and the Competent Authority has not raised an objection to the investigation within the 60 days time constraint period; or approval has been obtained from both the authoritative bodies. General Requirements: A well-defined clinical plan whose methodology and ethical considerations conforms to the standards set forth in the Medical Devices Regulations 2002: section 16 and section 29, the Active Implantable Medical Devices Directive, Annexes 6 and 7, and the Medical Devices Directive, Annexes VIII and X. Supplementary standards are set forth in Standard BS EN ISO 14155-1; 2002, â€Å"Clinical Investigation of Medical Devices for Human Subjects-part 1: General Requirements†, and BS EN ISO 14155-2:2002, â€Å"Clinical Investigation of Medical Devices for Human Subjects-part 2: Clinical Plan†. The CA should be notified incase of differences in the EU and non-EU protocols and the reasons for the same. â€Å"All applications must contain a statement (Active Implantable Medical Devices Directive: Annex 6,2.2; Medical Devices Directive: Annex VIII, 2.2): that the device in question conforms to the Essential Requirements except with regard to those aspects of the device that are to be investigated and that in respect of those aspects, every precaution has been taken to protect the health and safety of the patient. By signing this statement, the manufacturer is declaring that the device meets all of the relevant Essential Requirements, other than those subject to the investigation. Manufacturers must therefore ensure that at the time a notification is made to the Competent Authority, they have all documentation required to demonstrate conformity with the relevant Essential Requirements available for submission to the Competent Authority when requested.†2 Device information like name, model, materials used and sterilization standards etc must be provided as set forth in the directive. Pertinent information about the clinical investigation plan, investigation parameters and design, data collection and analysis methods etc. should be made available to the CA. It is strongly advised that Class III devices follow a well-designed post-marketing plan under the Medical Devices Vigilance. Extra care should be taken when labeling devices meant for clinical investigations. â€Å"All devices intended for clinical investigation must bear the wording exclusively for clinical investigation (Medical Devices Directive: annex 1, para 13.3(H) and the Active Implantable Medical Devices Directive: annex 1, 14.1).†2 Reporting of adverse incidents: â€Å"A serious adverse incident is one which: led to a death led to a serious deterioration in the health of the patient, user or others and includes: a life threatening illness or injury a permanent impairment to a body structure or function a condition requiring hospitalisation or increased length of existing hospitalisation a condition requiring otherwise unnecessary medical or surgical intervention and which might have led to death or serious deterioration in health had suitable action or intervention not taken place. This includes a malfunction of the device such that it has to be monitored more closely or temporarily or permanently taken out of service led to foetal distress, foetal death or a congenital abnormality or birth defect might have led to any of the above†2 All such incidents should be recorded and reported to the CA as set forth in the Regulation 16(10)(a) of the Medical Devices Regulations 2002 (SI 618) and Annex X of the Medical Devices Directive 93/42. Final written report: A report in conjunction with the Medical Devices Directive (Medical Devices Regulations 2002: Section 16(10) and Section 29(9)) should be submitted to the CA for devices undergoing investigation for a CE marking. However, Class III devices need to be highly regulated, before, after and during the clinical investigation. Owing to the high risks associated with their use, some say the risk can be quantified only as social and not scientific. â€Å"Risks, rather than being inherent within these implant devices, may be seen as socially derived, in processes of negotiation and conflict such as those in the case of hip and breast implants†¦.most recently, in the wake of the controversies surrounding breast implants and the 3M Capital hip, attention has been drawn to the uneven performance of notified bodies in the EU, which approve new products. This has led to the setting up of a new European Notified Bodies Operations Group (NEBOG) and calls by the MDA for all implants to be reclassified as high risk, Class III. A review of the operation of EU EMDD is also about to begin (MDA, 2001b). It thus appears that increased political scrutiny is being focused on this sector.†6 BIBLIOGRAPHY: THE MEDICAL DEVICES REGULATIONS: IMPLICATIONS ON HEALTHCARE AND OTHER RELATED ESTABLISHMENTS, BULLETIN No. 18, COMPETENT AUTHORITY (UK), Amended January 2006 EC MEDICAL DEVICES DIRECTIVES GUIDANCE FOR MANUFACTURERS ON CLINICAL INVESTIGATIONS TO BE CARRIED OUT IN THE UK, COMPETENT AUTHORITY (UK), Updated November 2007 THE NOTIFIED BODY, BULLETIN No. 6, COMPETENT AUTHORITY(UK), Amended January 2006 http://www.mhra.gov.uk/Howweregulate/Devices/ActiveImplantableMedicalDevicesDirective/index.htm, Last Date Accessed: April 08 2008 http://www.mhra.gov.uk/Safetyinformation/Generalsafetyinformationandadvice/Product-specificinformationandadvice/Cochlearimplants/index.htm, Last Date Accessed: April 08 2008 Kent, Julie and Faulkner, Alex (2002) Regulating human implant technologies in Europeunderstanding the new era in medical device regulation, Health, Risk Society, 4:2, 189 209 Medical Device Development: From Prototype to Regulatory Approval, Aaron V. Kaplan, Donald S. Baim, John J. Smith, David A. Feigal, Michael Simons, David Jefferys, Thomas J. Fogarty, Richard E. Kuntz and Martin B. Leon, 2004;109;3068-3072 Circulation, DOI: 10.1161/01.CIR.0000134695.65733.64,Circulation is published by the American Heart Association. 7272 Greenville Avenue, Dallas, TX, 72514, Copyright 2004 American Heart Association. All rights reserved. Print ISSN: 0009-7322. Online, ISSN: 1524-4539.